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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Transistor computer</span></span>

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<p>A <b>transistor computer</b>, now often called a <b>second-generation computer</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> which uses discrete <a href="Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> instead of <a href="Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>. The first generation of electronic computers used vacuum tubes, which generated large amounts of heat, were bulky and unreliable. A second-generation computer, through the late 1950s and 1960s featured <a href="Circuit_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit board">circuit boards</a> filled with individual transistors and <a href="Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">magnetic-core memory</a>. These machines remained the mainstream design into the late 1960s, when <a href="Integrated_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated circuits">integrated circuits</a> started appearing and led to the <a href="Third-generation_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Third-generation computer">third-generation computer</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>The <a href="University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>'s experimental <a href="Manchester_computers#Transistor_Computer" title="Manchester computers">Transistor Computer</a> was first operational in November 1953 and it is widely believed to be the first transistor computer to come into operation anywhere in the world. There were two versions of the Transistor Computer, the prototype, operational in 1953, and the full-size version, commissioned in April 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1953 machine had 92 <a href="Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistors</a> and 550 <a href="Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a>, manufactured by <a href="Standard_Telephones_and_Cables" title="Standard Telephones and Cables">STC</a>. It had a <a href="48-bit_computing" title="48-bit computing">48-bit</a> machine word. The 1955 machine had a total of 200 point-contact transistors and 1,300 point diodes,<sup id="cite_ref-ieee_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ieee-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which resulted in a power consumption of 150 watts. There were considerable reliability problems with the early batches of transistors and the average error-free run in 1955 was only 1.5 hours. The Transistor Computer also used a small number of tubes in its clock generator, so it was not the first <i>fully</i> transistorized machine.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The design of a full-size Transistor Computer was subsequently adopted by the <a href="Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> firm of <a href="Metropolitan-Vickers" title="Metropolitan-Vickers">Metropolitan-Vickers</a>, who changed all the circuits to use more reliable <a href="Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">junction transistors</a>. The production version was known as the <a href="Metrovick_950" title="Metrovick 950">Metrovick 950</a> and was built from 1956 to the extent of six<sup id="cite_ref-ieee_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ieee-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or seven machines, which were "used commercially within the company"<sup id="cite_ref-ch_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ch-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "mainly for internal use".<sup id="cite_ref-ieee_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ieee-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_early_machines">Other early machines</h3></div>

<p>During the mid-1950s a series of similar machines appeared. These included the <a href="Bell_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Laboratories">Bell Laboratories</a> <a href="TRADIC" title="TRADIC">TRADIC</a>, completed in January 1954, which used a single high-power output vacuum-tube amplifier to supply its 1-MHz clock power.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The first fully transistorized computer was either the <a href="Harwell_CADET" title="Harwell CADET">Harwell CADET</a>, which first operated in February 1955, although the price paid for this was that it operated only at the slow speed of 58 kHz, or the prototype <a href="IBM_604" title="IBM 604">IBM 604</a> transistor calculator. The <a href="Burroughs_Corporation" title="Burroughs Corporation">Burroughs Corporation</a> claimed the <a href="SM-65_Atlas" title="SM-65 Atlas">SM-65 Atlas</a> <a href="ICBM" class="mw-redirect" title="ICBM">ICBM</a> / THOR ABLE guidance computer (MOD 1) that it delivered to the US Air Force at the <a href="Cape_Canaveral" title="Cape Canaveral">Cape Canaveral</a> missile range in June 1957 was "the world's first operational transistorized computer". <a href="Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a>'s <a href="Lincoln_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Lincoln Laboratory">Lincoln Laboratory</a> started developing a transistorized computer the <a href="TX-0" title="TX-0">TX-0</a> in 1956.

</p><p>Further transistorized computers became operational in Japan (ETL Mark III, July 1956), in Canada (<a href="DRTE_Computer" title="DRTE Computer">DRTE Computer</a>, 1957), and in Austria, (<a href="Mail%C3%BCfterl" title="Mailüfterl">Mailüfterl</a>, May 1958),<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> these being the first transistorized computers in Asia, Canada and mainland Europe respectively.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_commercial_fully_transistorized_calculator">First commercial fully transistorized calculator</h2></div>

<p>In April 1955,<sup id="cite_ref-ibm608_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibm608-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> announced the <a href="IBM_608" title="IBM 608">IBM 608</a> transistor calculator, which was first shipped in December 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-pugh2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pugh2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> IBM and several historians thus consider the IBM 608 the first all <a href="Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">solid-state</a> computing machine commercially marketed.<sup id="cite_ref-ibm608_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibm608-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pugh34_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pugh34-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of the 608 was preceded by the prototyping of an experimental all-<a href="Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> version of the 604. This was built and demonstrated in October 1954, but was not commercialized.<sup id="cite_ref-pugh2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pugh2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pugh34_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pugh34-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_commercial_fully_transistorized_large-scale_computers">Early commercial fully transistorized large-scale computers</h2></div>

<p>The Philco Transac models S-1000 scientific computer and S-2000 electronic data processing computer were early commercially produced large-scale all-transistor computers; they were announced in 1957 but did not ship until sometime after the fall of 1958. The Philco computer name "Transac" stands for Transistor-Automatic-Computer. Both of these <a href="Philco_computers" title="Philco computers">Philco computer models</a> used the surface-barrier transistor in their circuitry designs, the world's first high-frequency transistor suitable for high-speed computers.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Surface-barrier_transistor" title="Surface-barrier transistor">surface-barrier transistor</a> was developed by Philco in 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>RCA shipped the <a href="RCA_501" title="RCA 501">RCA 501</a> its first all-transistor computer in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In Italy, <a href="Olivetti" title="Olivetti">Olivetti</a>'s first commercial fully transistorized computer was the <a href="Olivetti_Elea" title="Olivetti Elea">Olivetti Elea</a> 9003, sold from 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<p>IBM, which dominated the data processing industry through most of the 20th century, introduced its first commercial transistorized computers beginning in 1958, with the <a href="IBM_7070" title="IBM 7070">IBM 7070</a>, a ten-digit-word decimal machine.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was followed in 1959 by the <a href="IBM_7090" title="IBM 7090">IBM 7090</a>, a <a href="36-bit_computing" title="36-bit computing">36-bit</a> scientific machine, the highly popular <a href="IBM_1401" title="IBM 1401">IBM 1401</a> designed to replace punched card <a href="Tabulating_machine" title="Tabulating machine">tabulating machines</a>, and the desk-sized <a href="IBM_1620" title="IBM 1620">1620</a>, a variable length decimal machine. IBM's <a href="IBM_700/7000_series" title="IBM 700/7000 series">7000</a> and <a href="IBM_1400_series" title="IBM 1400 series">1400</a> series included many variants on these designs, with different data formats, instruction sets and even different character encodings, but all were built using the same series of electronics modules, the IBM Standard Modular System (SMS).<sup id="cite_ref-boyer_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boyer-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<p>Developers of the TX-0 left to form the <a href="Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">Digital Equipment Corporation</a> in 1957. Transistorized from the beginning, early DEC products included the <a href="PDP-1" title="PDP-1">PDP-1</a>, <a href="PDP-6" title="PDP-6">PDP-6</a>, <a href="PDP-7" title="PDP-7">PDP-7</a> and early <a href="PDP-8" title="PDP-8">PDP-8s</a>, the last starting the <a href="Minicomputer" title="Minicomputer">minicomputer</a> revolution. Later models of the PDP-8 beginning with PDP-8I<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1968 used integrated circuits making them third generation computers

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="System/360_and_hybrid_circuits">System/360 and hybrid circuits</h3></div>

<p>In 1964, IBM announced its <a href="System/360" class="mw-redirect" title="System/360">System/360</a>, a collection of computers covering a wide range of capabilities and prices with a unified architecture, to replace its earlier computers. Unwilling to bet the company on the immature monolithic IC technology of the early 1960s, IBM built the S/360 series using <a href="IBM_Solid_Logic_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Solid Logic Technology">IBM's Solid Logic Technology</a> (SLT) modules. SLT could package several individual transistors and individual diodes with deposited resistors and interconnections in a module one-half inch square, roughly the equivalent logic of the earlier <a href="IBM_Standard_Modular_System" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Standard Modular System">IBM Standard Modular System</a> card, but unlike monolithic IC manufacturing, the diodes and transistors in an SLT module were individually placed and connected at the end of each module's assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-boyer_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boyer-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Schools_and_hobbyists">Schools and hobbyists</h2></div>

<p>First generation computers were largely out of reach of schools and hobbyists who wished to build their own, largely because of the cost of the large number of vacuum tubes required (though relay-based computer projects <i>were</i> undertaken<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). The fourth generation (VLSI) was also largely out of reach, too, due to most of the design work being inside the integrated circuit package (though this barrier, too, was later removed<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). So, second and third generation computer design (transistors and MSI) were perhaps the best suited to being undertaken by schools and hobbyists.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_transistorized_computers" title="List of transistorized computers">List of transistorized computers</a></li>

<li><a href="Transistor_count#Transistor_computers" title="Transistor count">transistor count § Transistor computers</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-ibm608-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ibm608_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ibm608_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050122185954/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2214.html">"IBM 608 calculator"</a>. <i>IBM Archives ... Vintage views of IBM products</i>. IBM. October 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2214.html">the original</a> on January 22, 2005.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pugh2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pugh2_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pugh2_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPugh1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Emerson_W._Pugh" class="mw-redirect" title="Emerson W. Pugh">Pugh, Emerson W.</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bc8BGhSOawgC&q=608"><i>Building IBM: shaping an industry and its technology</i></a>. MIT Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">229–</span>230. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-262-16147-8</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1955.html">"1955"</a>. <i>IBM Archives, Exhibits, History of IBM, 1950s</i>. IBM. 23 January 2003.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pugh34-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pugh34_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pugh34_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPughJohnsonPalmer1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Emerson_W._Pugh" class="mw-redirect" title="Emerson W. Pugh">Pugh, Emerson W.</a>; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1991). <i>IBM's 360 and early 370 systems</i>. MIT Press. p. 34. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-262-16123-0</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNorman2005" class="citation book cs1">Norman, Jeremy M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=emmitTbOoFgC&dq=%22IBM+608%22&pg=PA86"><i>From Gutenberg to the Internet: a sourcebook on the history of information technology</i></a>. Vol. 2. Norman Publishing. p. 86. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-930405-87-0</bdi>.</cite> p. ]</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBoslaugh2003" class="citation book cs1">Boslaugh, David L. (16 April 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mi8MhzheOokC&dq=IBM+604+demonstrated&pg=PA156"><i>When Computers Went to Sea: The Digitization of the United States Navy</i></a>. Wiley. p. 156. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-471-47220-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"_". <i>Digital Computer Newsletter</i>. <b>9</b> (2). Office of Naval Research: <span class="nowrap">7–</span>8. April 1957. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/227552420">227552420</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chicago Tribune, March 23, 1958, Article: "All Transistor Computer Put on Market by Philco", page A11</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRosen1991" class="citation report cs1"><a href="Saul_Rosen" title="Saul Rosen">Rosen, Saul</a> (June 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1890&context=cstech">PHILCO: Some Recollections of the PHILCO TRANSAC S-2000</a> (Computer Science Technical Reports / Purdue e-Pubs). Purdue University.</cite> Here: page 2</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Philco Claims Its Transistor Outperforms Others Now In Use". <i><a href="Wall_Street_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Journal">Wall Street Journal</a></i>. December 4, 1953. p. 4.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRCA_advertisement1965" class="citation journal cs1">RCA advertisement (January 1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HJVRAAAAYAAJ">"RCA announces the world's computer series"</a>. <i>Datamation</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 8. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1142395">1142395</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFParolini2008" class="citation book cs1">Parolini, Giuditta (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=60Cx2T5IiuYC&pg=PA37">"Olivetti Elea 9003: Between Scientific Research and Computer Business"</a>. <i>History of Computing and Education 3 (HCE3)</i>. Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">37–</span>54. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780387096568</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2070.html">"Trucks, sheep and the IBM 7070"</a>. <i>IBM Archives, Exhibits, Vintage Views</i>. IBM. 23 January 2003.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-boyer-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-boyer_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-boyer_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBoyer2004" class="citation web cs1">Boyer, Chuck (April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computer-museum.ru/books/archiv/ibm36040.pdf">"The 360 Revolution"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. IBM. p. 18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/minicomputers/11/331/1906">"PDP-8/I IC logic module"</a>. <a href="Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBolt2010" class="citation book cs1">Bolt, A.B. (2010) [1966]. <i>We Built our own Computers</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-09378-1</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMeadConway1980" class="citation book cs1">Mead, C.; Conway, L. (1980). <a href="Mead%E2%80%93Conway_VLSI_chip_design_revolution" title="Mead–Conway VLSI chip design revolution"><i>Introduction to VLSI Systems</i></a>. Addison-Wesley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-201-04358-0</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.Wilkinson (1968). Computer Models, Edward Arnold, UK, SBN 7131 1515 X</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

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</style><div id="Mainframe_computers95" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">Mainframe computers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Australia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="SILLIAC" title="SILLIAC">SILLIAC</a> (1956)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="WEIZAC" title="WEIZAC">WEIZAC</a> (1955)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Japan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="FACOM" title="FACOM">FACOM</a> (1954)</li>

<li><a href="FUJIC" title="FUJIC">FUJIC</a> (1949)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sweden</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="TRASK_(computer)" title="TRASK (computer)">TRASK</a> (1964)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Elbrus_(computer)" title="Elbrus (computer)">Elbrus</a></li>

<li>Electronika SS VLSI</li>

<li>See also: Soviet computer systems</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="IAS_machine" title="IAS machine">IAS family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="1950s10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ILLIAC" title="ILLIAC">ILLIAC</a> (1952)</li>

<li><a href="AVIDAC" title="AVIDAC">AVIDAC</a> (1953)</li>

<li><a href="JOHNNIAC" title="JOHNNIAC">JOHNNIAC</a> (1953)</li>

<li><a href="ORACLE_(computer)" title="ORACLE (computer)">ORACLE</a> (1953)</li>

<li><a href="ORDVAC" title="ORDVAC">ORDVAC</a> (1952)</li>

<li><a href="WEIZAC" title="WEIZAC">WEIZAC</a> (1955)</li>

<li><a href="SILLIAC" title="SILLIAC">SILLIAC</a> (1956)</li>

<li><a href="MANIAC_I" title="MANIAC I">MANIAC I</a> (1956)</li>

<li><a href="MANIAC_II" title="MANIAC II">MANIAC II</a> (1956)</li>

<li><a href="MISTIC" title="MISTIC">MISTIC</a> (1957)</li>

<li><a href="MUSASINO-1" title="MUSASINO-1">MUSASINO-1</a> (1957)</li>

<li><a href="Cyclone_(computer)" title="Cyclone (computer)">Cyclone</a> (1959)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>FACOM 201 (1960)</li>

<li><a href="TRASK_(computer)" title="TRASK (computer)">TRASK</a> (1964)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign" title="University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ORDVAC" title="ORDVAC">ORDVAC</a> (1952)</li>

<li><a href="ILLIAC_I" title="ILLIAC I">ILLIAC I</a> (1952)</li>

<li><a href="ILLIAC_II" title="ILLIAC II">ILLIAC II</a> (1958)</li>

<li><a href="ILLIAC_III" title="ILLIAC III">ILLIAC III</a> (1966)</li>

<li><a href="ILLIAC_IV" title="ILLIAC IV">ILLIAC IV</a> (1965)</li>

<li><a href="ILLIAC#CEDAR" title="ILLIAC">CEDAR</a> (1988)</li>

<li><a href="ILLIAC#ILLIAC_6" title="ILLIAC">ILLIAC 6</a> (2005)</li>

<li><a href="ILLIAC#Trusted_ILLIAC" title="ILLIAC">Trusted ILLIAC</a> (2006)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Harvard_Mark_I" title="Harvard Mark I">Harvard Mark I</a> (1944)</li>

<li><a href="Harvard_Mark_II" title="Harvard Mark II">Harvard Mark II</a> (1947)</li>

<li><a href="Harvard_Mark_III" title="Harvard Mark III">Harvard Mark III</a> (1949)</li>

<li><a href="Harvard_Mark_IV" title="Harvard Mark IV">Harvard Mark IV</a> (1952)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">IBM</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="IBM_vacuum_tube_computers67" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="IBM_vacuum_tube_computers67" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">IBM vacuum tube computers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="IBM_305_RAMAC" title="IBM 305 RAMAC">305 RAMAC</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Semi-Automatic_Ground_Environment" title="Semi-Automatic Ground Environment">SAGE</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Mainframes</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> (1945)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Eckert%E2%80%93Mauchly_Computer_Corporation" title="Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation">EMCC</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="EDVAC" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a> (1949)</li>

<li><a href="UNIVAC_I" title="UNIVAC I">UNIVAC I</a> (1951)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Remington_Rand" title="Remington Rand">Remington</a>–<a href="Sperry_Rand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperry Rand">Sperry Rand</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="UNIVAC_II" title="UNIVAC II">UNIVAC II</a></li>

<li>See also: <a href="List_of_UNIVAC_products" title="List of UNIVAC products">Computers built 1955–1978</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Raytheon_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Raytheon Technologies">Raytheon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="RAYDAC" title="RAYDAC">RAYDAC</a> (1953)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus computer</a> (1943)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Vacuum-tube_computer" title="Vacuum-tube computer">Vacuum-tube computer</a>

<li><a href="History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present)</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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